Lecture Three, 31st of October 2007
History of English
1. Introduction
2. Learner's Diary
3. Tasks and Quizzes
4. Evaluation
5. References
1. Introduction
The lecture was about the history of the English language and the influence of other languages on the English language. It was influenced by several languages of the conquerors. It started in the 5th century when Germanic tribes settled down in the South and North of the country. So the language was affected by the Celtic dialects. In 1066 William the Conqueror and the Normans entered the island and the language of the upper class is influenced by this dialect. The Early Modern English is marked by the work of William Shakespeare. The Late Modern English is mostly influenced by foreign languages.
2. Learner's Diary
Influence of other languages to the English language
The evidence of East and North Germanic
East Germanic
The Gothic Bible also known as the Bible of Bishop Wulfila. Named after the Bishop Wulfila is a Christian Bible translated into the Gothic language around 500 AD. It contains manuscripts from the New and Old testament.
North Germanic
The Horns of Gallehus are two golden horns discovered in the Danish town Gallehus. Both were believed to date to the fifth century.
Old English
- About 600 – 1000 AD
- Germanic dialects
Spread of English around the world
Phonology of Speech
After the part history of the English language followed an introduction to the phonology of speech. Phonology examines the sound system of a language. The encoding is effected either by phonemes (acoustic encoding) or graphemes (visual encoding).
Sign Model
It refers on one hand to the internal structure and on the other hand to the external structure. The phonetic interpretation presents the pronunciation and the orthographic interpretation presents the spelling.
Representation of sound
The prosodic hierarchy consists of two parts, phonemes and syllables.
phonemes
- function: “smallest word-distinguishing segments”
- internal structure: “configuations of distinctive phonetic features”
- external structure (see syllables)
- rendering: “contextual variants”, “allophones”
syllables
- function: “word distinguishing phoneme configurations”
- internal structure: “configurations of sequential features (consonantal, vocalic; voiced, unvoiced; ...) and simultaneous features (tone, accent)
- external structure (word)
- rendering: a function of the rendering of phonemes
Basics of English Syllable Structure
Syllable occur in a structure. C stands for consonant, V for vowel.
CCCVVCCC e.g. the word straight
s (C) - t (C) - r (C) - a (V) - i (V) - g (C) - h (C) - t (C)
Phonemes: sounds in the dictionary
There are several ways of defining phonemes, depending on which of the four sign components is focussed.
the minimal word-distinguishing sound segment
The smallest unit of a syllable based on structure
Consists of distinctive features
Consists of a set of allophones
The IPA chart
IPA is an abbreviation for International Phonetic Alphabet.
3. Tasks and Quizzes
Find out what "Beowulf" is
Find out who or what “Beowulf” isA heroic poem considered the highest achievement of Old English literature and the earliest European vernacular epic. It deals with events of the early 6th century and was probably composed c. 700–750. It tells the story of the Scandinavian hero Beowulf, who gains fame as a young man by vanquishing the monster Grendel and Grendel's mother; later, as an aging king, he kills a dragon but dies soon after, honoured and lamented. Beowulf belongs metrically, stylistically, and thematically to the Germanic heroic tradition but shows a distinct Christian influence.
(Wikipedia article "Beowulf". http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beowulf, 3.11.2007)
Find the text and a translation
Text: http://www8.georgetown.edu/departments/medieval/labyrinth/library/oe/texts/a4.1.html
Translation: http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/beowulf.html
Figure out the vocabulary and the grammar of two or three lines, by comparing the text with the translation
London: the Roman settlement which is now London was called Londinum
Canterbury: The name Canterbury derives from the Old English Cantwarebyrig, meaning "fortress of the men of Kent". The bury element is a form of borough, which has cognates in words and place names in virtually every Indo-European and Semitic language, as well as others.
(Wikipedia article "Canterbury". http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canterbury, 3.11.2007)
Kent: The name "Kent" predates the Jutish invaders, and relates to the much earlier Celtic Cantiaci tribe whose homeland it was.
(Wikipedia article "Kent". http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kent, 3.11.2007)
Middle English
- Canterbury Tales written by Geoffrey Chaucer in the 14th century
Modern English Dialects
The Spread of English
Colonial language spread
Check the main colonial periods of
Portuguese
The Portuguese Empire was the first Global empire in history and also the earliest and longest lived of the western european colonial empires (1415-1999)
(Wikipedia article "Portuguese Empire". http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portuguese_empire, 5.11.2007)
Spanish
The Spanish ruled huge parts of South America, Canada and smaller parts of Africa between the 16th century und 1975. At its largest reach, roughly 1740-1790 Spain controlled about half of South America, more than a third of North America, and had significant holdings in the Pacific basin.
(Wikipedia article "Spanish Empire". http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_empire, 5.11.2007)
Dutch
The Dutch Empireis the name given to the various territories controlled by the Netherlands from the 17th to the 20th century. The Dutch followed Spain and Portugal in establishing a colonial global empire outside of continental Europe. Their skills in shipping and trading and the surge of nationalism and militarism accompanying the struggle for independence from Spain aided the venture. Alongside the British, the Dutch initially built up colonial possessions on the basis of indirect state capitalist corporate colonialism, with the Dutch East India Company dominant. Direct state intervention in the colonial enterprise came later. Dutch merchants and sailors also participated in the surge of exploration that unfolded in the 16th and 17th centuries, though the vast new territories revealed by Willem Barents, Henry Hudson and Abel Tasman in the Arctic and in Australasia/Oceania did not generally become permanent Dutch colonies.
(Wikipedia article "Dutch Empire". http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_empire, 5.11.2007)
French
France had colonial possessions, in various forms, since the beginning of the 17th century until the 1960s. In the 19th and 20th centuries, its global colonial empire was the second largest in the world behind the British Empire. At its peak, between 1919 and 1939, the second French colonial empire extended over 12,347,000 km² (4,767,000 sq. miles) of land. Including metropolitan France, the total area of land under French sovereignty reached 12,898,000 km² (4,980,000 sq. miles) in the 1920s and 1930s, which is 8.6% of the world's land area.
(Wikipedia article "French colonial empire". http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_colonial_empire, 5.11.2007)
English
Worldwide system of dependencies-colonies, protectorates, and other territories-that over a span of three centuries came under the British government. Territorial acquisition began in the early 17th century with a group of settlements in North America and West Indian, South Asian, and African trading posts founded by private individuals and trading companies. In the 18th century the British took Gibraltar, established colonies along the Atlantic seacoast of North America and in the Caribbean Sea, and began to add territory in India. With its victory in the French and Indian War (1763), the empire secured Canada and the eastern Mississippi Valley and gained supremacy in India. From the late 18th century it began to build power in Malaya and acquired the Cape of Good Hope, Ceylon (see Sri Lanka), and Malta. The British settled Australia in 1788 and subsequently New Zealand. Aden was secured in 1839, and Hong Kong in 1841. Britain went on to control the Suez Canal (1875–1956). In the 19th-century European partition of Africa, Britain acquired Nigeria, Egypt, the territories that would become British East Africa, and part of what would become the Union (later Republic) of South Africa. After World War I, Britain secured mandates to German East Africa, part of the Cameroons, part of Togo, German South-West Africa, Mesopotamia, Palestine, and part of the German Pacific islands. Britain gradually evolved a system of self-government for some colonies after the U.S. gained independence, as set forth in Lord Durham's report of 1839. Dominion status was given to Canada (1867), Australia (1901), New Zealand (1907), the Union of South Africa (1910), and the Irish Free State (1921). Britain declared war on Germany in 1914 on behalf of the entire empire; after World War I the dominions signed the peace treaties themselves and joined the League of Nations as independent states. In 1931 the Statute of Westminster recognized them as independent countries “within the British Empire,” referring to the “British Commonwealth of Nations,” and from 1949, the Commonwealth of Nations. The British Empire, therefore, developed into the Commonwealth in the mid-20th century, as former British dependencies obtained sovereignty but retained ties to the United Kingdom.
(Wikipedia article "British Empire". http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Empire, 5.11.2007)
Migrations & the History of English
Vertical development
Indo-European
Celtic
-West to Britain
Germanic
-Saxon
-Viking
-Norman
Colonial
-North America
-Africa
-Asia
-Australia
Lateral development
Antiquity:
-Celtic
-Latin
Middle Ages:
-Norman French
Renaissance:
-Latin
-Greek
Colonial period:
-Arabic
-Hindi
Development of English
What are the most important stages?
The invasion of the Romans from 1st to 5th century, they brought the Latin language with them. The settlement of middle England by the Germanic Anglos and Saxons.
Invasion by the people from the North, the Norsemen (from the Norwegian area) and the Vikings (from the Danish area).
In 1066 William the Conqueror and the Normans conquered England and William became king. He brought with him a Norman dialect of French. The upper class's language and the language of the jurisdiction is gravely influenced by this dialect. The Renaissance which started in the 15th century in which people remembered the great works of the old Greek and Roman philosophers, artists and politicians. Because of that they also took a closer look on their language and used it again. Italian and French also came into fashion, as the first is spoken in the country the Romans came from and the letter is the language of the great philosophers like Voltaire.
What is the significance of Celtic / Latin?
Celtic is the first language that influenced the native people who were living In Britain. This language is the foundation of any other language or dialect that comes after it and changes the way people speak.
Latin influenced the English language on several occasions. Firstly during the time of their occupation of England from the 1st to the 5th century. That is the reason why so many English words are related to Latin ones especially words for things that the native Celts did not know about, like wine (lat. vinum). Latin never really lost its significance, as during the Renaissance period it came into fashion again and between the time of the Romans and the Renaissance Latin has been the official language of the church and the ruling classes. Services were only held in Latin and the kings wrote most of their documents, declarations of war or laws and treaties in Latin. Although Henry VIII. broke with the pope and the Catholic church in the 17th century and founded the Church of England, by that time there had been a large number words taken from the Latin vernacular which had melted into the English language.
Which major changes happened between
Old English and Middle English?
In Old English was spelled essentially as it was pronounced.
Middle English and Modern English?
The spelling of the words in Middle English has not changed drastically, but the pronunciation of the words has. This is one reason why the spelling and the pronunciation of Modern English do not correspond very well.
English today
What are the main English dialects in Britain?
There are several ways of defining phonemes, depending on which of the four sign components is focussed.
the minimal word-distinguishing sound segment
The smallest unit of a syllable based on structure
Consists of distinctive features
Consists of a set of allophones
The IPA chart
IPA is an abbreviation for International Phonetic Alphabet.
3. Tasks and Quizzes
Find out what "Beowulf" is
Find out who or what “Beowulf” isA heroic poem considered the highest achievement of Old English literature and the earliest European vernacular epic. It deals with events of the early 6th century and was probably composed c. 700–750. It tells the story of the Scandinavian hero Beowulf, who gains fame as a young man by vanquishing the monster Grendel and Grendel's mother; later, as an aging king, he kills a dragon but dies soon after, honoured and lamented. Beowulf belongs metrically, stylistically, and thematically to the Germanic heroic tradition but shows a distinct Christian influence.
(Wikipedia article "Beowulf". http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beowulf, 3.11.2007)
Find the text and a translation
Text: http://www8.georgetown.edu/departments/medieval/labyrinth/library/oe/texts/a4.1.html
Translation: http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/beowulf.html
Figure out the vocabulary and the grammar of two or three lines, by comparing the text with the translation
London: the Roman settlement which is now London was called Londinum
Canterbury: The name Canterbury derives from the Old English Cantwarebyrig, meaning "fortress of the men of Kent". The bury element is a form of borough, which has cognates in words and place names in virtually every Indo-European and Semitic language, as well as others.
(Wikipedia article "Canterbury". http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canterbury, 3.11.2007)
Kent: The name "Kent" predates the Jutish invaders, and relates to the much earlier Celtic Cantiaci tribe whose homeland it was.
(Wikipedia article "Kent". http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kent, 3.11.2007)
Middle English
- Canterbury Tales written by Geoffrey Chaucer in the 14th century
Modern English Dialects
The Spread of English
Colonial language spread
Check the main colonial periods of
Portuguese
The Portuguese Empire was the first Global empire in history and also the earliest and longest lived of the western european colonial empires (1415-1999)
(Wikipedia article "Portuguese Empire". http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portuguese_empire, 5.11.2007)
Spanish
The Spanish ruled huge parts of South America, Canada and smaller parts of Africa between the 16th century und 1975. At its largest reach, roughly 1740-1790 Spain controlled about half of South America, more than a third of North America, and had significant holdings in the Pacific basin.
(Wikipedia article "Spanish Empire". http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_empire, 5.11.2007)
Dutch
The Dutch Empireis the name given to the various territories controlled by the Netherlands from the 17th to the 20th century. The Dutch followed Spain and Portugal in establishing a colonial global empire outside of continental Europe. Their skills in shipping and trading and the surge of nationalism and militarism accompanying the struggle for independence from Spain aided the venture. Alongside the British, the Dutch initially built up colonial possessions on the basis of indirect state capitalist corporate colonialism, with the Dutch East India Company dominant. Direct state intervention in the colonial enterprise came later. Dutch merchants and sailors also participated in the surge of exploration that unfolded in the 16th and 17th centuries, though the vast new territories revealed by Willem Barents, Henry Hudson and Abel Tasman in the Arctic and in Australasia/Oceania did not generally become permanent Dutch colonies.
(Wikipedia article "Dutch Empire". http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_empire, 5.11.2007)
French
France had colonial possessions, in various forms, since the beginning of the 17th century until the 1960s. In the 19th and 20th centuries, its global colonial empire was the second largest in the world behind the British Empire. At its peak, between 1919 and 1939, the second French colonial empire extended over 12,347,000 km² (4,767,000 sq. miles) of land. Including metropolitan France, the total area of land under French sovereignty reached 12,898,000 km² (4,980,000 sq. miles) in the 1920s and 1930s, which is 8.6% of the world's land area.
(Wikipedia article "French colonial empire". http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_colonial_empire, 5.11.2007)
English
Worldwide system of dependencies-colonies, protectorates, and other territories-that over a span of three centuries came under the British government. Territorial acquisition began in the early 17th century with a group of settlements in North America and West Indian, South Asian, and African trading posts founded by private individuals and trading companies. In the 18th century the British took Gibraltar, established colonies along the Atlantic seacoast of North America and in the Caribbean Sea, and began to add territory in India. With its victory in the French and Indian War (1763), the empire secured Canada and the eastern Mississippi Valley and gained supremacy in India. From the late 18th century it began to build power in Malaya and acquired the Cape of Good Hope, Ceylon (see Sri Lanka), and Malta. The British settled Australia in 1788 and subsequently New Zealand. Aden was secured in 1839, and Hong Kong in 1841. Britain went on to control the Suez Canal (1875–1956). In the 19th-century European partition of Africa, Britain acquired Nigeria, Egypt, the territories that would become British East Africa, and part of what would become the Union (later Republic) of South Africa. After World War I, Britain secured mandates to German East Africa, part of the Cameroons, part of Togo, German South-West Africa, Mesopotamia, Palestine, and part of the German Pacific islands. Britain gradually evolved a system of self-government for some colonies after the U.S. gained independence, as set forth in Lord Durham's report of 1839. Dominion status was given to Canada (1867), Australia (1901), New Zealand (1907), the Union of South Africa (1910), and the Irish Free State (1921). Britain declared war on Germany in 1914 on behalf of the entire empire; after World War I the dominions signed the peace treaties themselves and joined the League of Nations as independent states. In 1931 the Statute of Westminster recognized them as independent countries “within the British Empire,” referring to the “British Commonwealth of Nations,” and from 1949, the Commonwealth of Nations. The British Empire, therefore, developed into the Commonwealth in the mid-20th century, as former British dependencies obtained sovereignty but retained ties to the United Kingdom.
(Wikipedia article "British Empire". http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Empire, 5.11.2007)
Migrations & the History of English
Vertical development
Indo-European
Celtic
-West to Britain
Germanic
-Saxon
-Viking
-Norman
Colonial
-North America
-Africa
-Asia
-Australia
Lateral development
Antiquity:
-Celtic
-Latin
Middle Ages:
-Norman French
Renaissance:
-Latin
-Greek
Colonial period:
-Arabic
-Hindi
Development of English
What are the most important stages?
The invasion of the Romans from 1st to 5th century, they brought the Latin language with them. The settlement of middle England by the Germanic Anglos and Saxons.
Invasion by the people from the North, the Norsemen (from the Norwegian area) and the Vikings (from the Danish area).
In 1066 William the Conqueror and the Normans conquered England and William became king. He brought with him a Norman dialect of French. The upper class's language and the language of the jurisdiction is gravely influenced by this dialect. The Renaissance which started in the 15th century in which people remembered the great works of the old Greek and Roman philosophers, artists and politicians. Because of that they also took a closer look on their language and used it again. Italian and French also came into fashion, as the first is spoken in the country the Romans came from and the letter is the language of the great philosophers like Voltaire.
What is the significance of Celtic / Latin?
Celtic is the first language that influenced the native people who were living In Britain. This language is the foundation of any other language or dialect that comes after it and changes the way people speak.
Latin influenced the English language on several occasions. Firstly during the time of their occupation of England from the 1st to the 5th century. That is the reason why so many English words are related to Latin ones especially words for things that the native Celts did not know about, like wine (lat. vinum). Latin never really lost its significance, as during the Renaissance period it came into fashion again and between the time of the Romans and the Renaissance Latin has been the official language of the church and the ruling classes. Services were only held in Latin and the kings wrote most of their documents, declarations of war or laws and treaties in Latin. Although Henry VIII. broke with the pope and the Catholic church in the 17th century and founded the Church of England, by that time there had been a large number words taken from the Latin vernacular which had melted into the English language.
Which major changes happened between
Old English and Middle English?
In Old English was spelled essentially as it was pronounced.
Middle English and Modern English?
The spelling of the words in Middle English has not changed drastically, but the pronunciation of the words has. This is one reason why the spelling and the pronunciation of Modern English do not correspond very well.
English today
What are the main English dialects in Britain?
Scottish, South and South- Western dialect, Eastern dialect, Western- and Eastern Central dialect and Lower North dialect.
Where is English spoken today as a native language?
USA, Canada, Great Britain and the British Isles, Ireland, Jamaica, Trinidad and Tobago.
Why is English spoken all round the world?
English is probably spoken all around the world because in colonial times Britain ruled about ¼ of the whole world and brought (or maybe forced) their language to (on) the people they conquered. English still remains the official language in most of these countries, especially in the African ones, as there are many different dialects spoken in each country and English is the universal language everybody learns at school. I probably has also got something to do with the role the English speaking countries USA and Great Britain played during several wars. They won most of the wars in the 29th and 21st century thy participated in and the brought freedom and peace to some people who lived under oppressive governments, by that they also spread their language all over the world. Moreover most words that have to do with computers or IT technology are English, because Microsoft dominates the world market and Microsoft is an American company. The internet, which was also developed on the basis of the English language (html is based on English) has had a major influence on the everyday lives of basically everybody around the world.
Check Google for works by Jennifer Jenkins - what do you find?
HORSE TRADE
Jennifer Jenkins
(Blueline)
I.
I was one of those little girls that wanted a pony,
not because I became mesmerized by Liz Taylor or
needed a Flicka friend, but because ponies had long hair,
all down the neck and out the back. That's how they came
and went, with not a thought of stalling to tape their bangs.
They see through fringe to check for limits and find
no God in the eyes or Devil in the mouth.
II.
Have a pony, chilled gold to fit full inside my dainty grip.
The opening seemed to bridle my nibbling lips.
The guys fisted their Shlitz while we girls buried
our aperitif beers under our hair until the males malted
our way, then we'd whip our pony tails, rim our collarbones
and grin for auction.
III.
I'm full and past bolting. Reined and ridden and snorting still.
Don't brush against me, I command within steam.
I've nodded and neighed, nostrils
are full of foal that hooves for breath.
Broken, I stirrup and rear my spindly child,
her mane as wet as mine.
(http://poetry.about.com/library/bl0701ibpchm.htm, 5.11.2007)
Definition of phoneme
Phonemes are the smallest part of speech that carries meaning and distinguish one word from another.
Definition of syllable
Syllables are phoneme configuration which distinguishes words.
Find examples of 5 not-too-short words
transcribe them and divide them into syllables
civilized ci - vi - lized sɪvəlajzd
industry in - dus - try ındəstri
criminal cri - mi - nal krɪmənəl
problem pro - blem prəblem
development de - vel - op - ment dɪveləpment
Make a list of 5 spelling rules
- ck may only be used after a single vowel that does not say its name at the end of a syllable
or root word.
- If a word ends in a consonant plus y, change the y to and i, before adding any ending, except
- If a word ends in a consonant plus y, change the y to and i, before adding any ending, except
ing.
- ous at the end of a word often means full of.
- double l, f, and s after a single short vowel at the end of a word.
- Drop the final e from a root word before adding an ending beginning with a vowel, but keep it
- ous at the end of a word often means full of.
- double l, f, and s after a single short vowel at the end of a word.
- Drop the final e from a root word before adding an ending beginning with a vowel, but keep it
before a consonant.
(http://www.amity.org.uk/Training/Spelling%20Rules/Spelling%20Rules.htm, 5.11.2007)
Make a list of 5 main spelling problems
- swallowed syllables, three syllables pronounced as two syllables.
- silent letters
- homophones, words which sound the same.
- same sound, different spelling
- unusual letter combinations
(http://esl.about.com/library/weekly/aaspellinga.htm, 5.11.2007)
Pronunciation
List the consonants of German which do not occur in English
The consonants /ç/, /X/ and ß
List the consonants of English which do not occur in German
The consonants /θ/ and /ð/
List the vowels of German which do not occur in English
The vowels /o/, /ø/, /y/, /oə/ and /ү/
List the vowels of English which do not occur in German
The vowels /з/ and /æ/
Spelling
List the characters of German which do not occur in English
The characters ä, ö, ü, ß
List the characters of English which do not occur in German
All occur in German
List 5 English graphemes containing more than one character
ea - tea, beauty, meat
oi - oil, boil
kn - knight
sh - ship
ck - clock
List 5 German graphemes containing more than one character
ch - Mädchen, Eiche
ie - Fliege, siegen
sch - schlafen
pf - Pflug, pfeifen
au – Klaue
4. Evaluation
Mr. Gibbon spent lots of time with the history, not so much with phonology. This topic was more difficult than the history of English language. It is a little bit difficult to follow, because often the lecture ends in the middle of a topic.
5. References
http://wwwhomes.uni-bielefeld.de/~gibbon/Classes/Classes2007WS/ITL/index.html
http://www8.georgetown.edu/departments/medieval/labyrinth/library/oe/texts/a4.1.html
http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/beowulf.html
http://poetry.about.com/library/bl0701ibpchm.htm
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Empire
http://www.amity.org.uk/Training/Spelling%20Rules/Spelling%20Rules.htm
http://esl.about.com/library/weekly/aaspellinga.htm
(http://www.amity.org.uk/Training/Spelling%20Rules/Spelling%20Rules.htm, 5.11.2007)
Make a list of 5 main spelling problems
- swallowed syllables, three syllables pronounced as two syllables.
- silent letters
- homophones, words which sound the same.
- same sound, different spelling
- unusual letter combinations
(http://esl.about.com/library/weekly/aaspellinga.htm, 5.11.2007)
Pronunciation
List the consonants of German which do not occur in English
The consonants /ç/, /X/ and ß
List the consonants of English which do not occur in German
The consonants /θ/ and /ð/
List the vowels of German which do not occur in English
The vowels /o/, /ø/, /y/, /oə/ and /ү/
List the vowels of English which do not occur in German
The vowels /з/ and /æ/
Spelling
List the characters of German which do not occur in English
The characters ä, ö, ü, ß
List the characters of English which do not occur in German
All occur in German
List 5 English graphemes containing more than one character
ea - tea, beauty, meat
oi - oil, boil
kn - knight
sh - ship
ck - clock
List 5 German graphemes containing more than one character
ch - Mädchen, Eiche
ie - Fliege, siegen
sch - schlafen
pf - Pflug, pfeifen
au – Klaue
4. Evaluation
Mr. Gibbon spent lots of time with the history, not so much with phonology. This topic was more difficult than the history of English language. It is a little bit difficult to follow, because often the lecture ends in the middle of a topic.
5. References
http://wwwhomes.uni-bielefeld.de/~gibbon/Classes/Classes2007WS/ITL/index.html
http://www8.georgetown.edu/departments/medieval/labyrinth/library/oe/texts/a4.1.html
http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/beowulf.html
http://poetry.about.com/library/bl0701ibpchm.htm
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Empire
http://www.amity.org.uk/Training/Spelling%20Rules/Spelling%20Rules.htm
http://esl.about.com/library/weekly/aaspellinga.htm
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