Introduction to Linguistics - Lecture 11

Lecture Eleven, 9th January 2008

Semantics: interpreting signs


1. Introduction
2. Learner's Diary
3. Tasks and Quizzes
4. Evaluation
5. References


1. Introduction

First a revision of the topic semantics from the last session and afterwards an introduction in pragmatics, their signs and their interpreters.



2. Learner's Diary


Semantic meanings in conjunctions

The truth table


Example: and John drinks coffee and he is tiered.

P sentence q

T true T
T false F
F false T
F false F


Example: if If it rains it is cloudy.

P sentence q

T true T
T true T
T false F
F true F


Paradigmatics

Pragmatics is the study of the relations between signs and their interpreters. Fact is, that there are no meaning without signs.


Modelling pragmatics

Model of Ferdinand de Saussure

Ferdinand de Saussure described languages as signs in the memory of every person and as the foundation of social interaction. He started his research by asking himself how language is used. A channel connects the Phonation of the speaker to the auditor and back, the language signs of a language are shared by its users.






Instrumental Theory (Karl Bühler)

Karl Bühler described language as an instrument. A sign connects the speaker and the hearer, it is an instrument with which the speaker is able to effect a reaction. Most of the time there is one function which dominates the message, but normally every message contains all three functions. There are three different functions of the model:

1. expressive function (Ausdrucksfunktion) = speaker-oriented because the speaker states his a personal condition.

2. representational function (Darstellungsfunktion) = context-oriented function where objects, people etc, are described.

3. appelative function (Appellfunktion) = hearer-orientated




The Jakobson model

Jacobson described every sign as a message and the channel as the contact between speaker and hearer. The speaker has an expressive function, he utters a personal attitude. The context refers to an object in the real world, it has a representative function. The receiver has a conative function. The linguistic code has a metalingual function, there is reference to the code itself. The phatic function of language is concerned with the channel to contact. The message itself has a poetic function and describes the relations between the message and parts of the message. It has a reflexive aspect, e.g. rhyme, meter, alliteration.





Syntax – semantics – pragmatics

A traditional distinction (due to Rudolf Carnap)

- syntax: the relation of signs to each other
- semantics: the relation of signs to the world
- pragmatics: the relation of signs to their users

Example: Once upon a time there was a young lad named Jack, who lived in his house with his father, a gardener. ...


Function in reference to the model of Jakobson

- sender (expressive function): parents
- receiver (conative function): children who have a childish imagination
- poetic function: memory, form exactly, moral
- context: content of the story
- code: language which is written
- message: fairytale itself
- channel: acoustic features


Pragmatics

Appraisal

- subjective judgments, concern attitudes of the speaker and hearer, e.g. real cool
gear
- descriptive judgments, concern properties of persons, places, things, events, e.g.
floppy pink pyjamas


Taboo words
Culture specific expletives, interjections, verbs, in general concerned with:

- excretions

shit, shitty
snot, snotty
bloody (etymology: by Our Lady)

- sexual acts

fuck
wank

- sexual organs

prick, dick
cunt

- deities: names of God
- euphemisms for taboo words


Cooperation (Paul Grice)

Maxims of quantity
- Make your contribution as informative as required.
- Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.

Maxims of quality
- Do not say what your believe to be false.
- Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.

Maxim of relation
- Be relevant.

Maxims of manner
- Avoid obscurity of expression.
- Avoid ambiguity.
- Be brief.
- Be orderly.


Politeness

Geoffrey Leech's politeness maxims (abbreviated)

The Maxim of Tact
minimise cost to other, maximise benefit to other

The Maxim of Generosity
minimise benefit to self, maximise cost to self

The Maxim of Approbation
minimise criticism of other, maximise approval of other

The Maxim of Modesty
minimise praise of self, maximise criticism of self

The Maxim of Agreement
minimise disagreement, maximise agreement

The Maxim of Sympathy
minimise antipathy, maximise sympathy


Expression of politeness

- Style: formality
- Directness vs. indirectness: indirect speech acts
- Avoidance of commitment: hedging
- Positive expression of negative judgment: euphemism
- Modification of utterance by tone of voice: prosody
- Body language: posture, position, gesture


Speech acts

Speech acts involve doing things with words, the concept of speech act was introduced by J.L. Austin and extended by J.R. Searle (and many others)

A speech act is complex and has three dimensions:

locutionary act: propositional meaning of utterance
- assigning events and states to beings, objects, etc.

illocutionary act: interactive status of utterance
- statement, question, …

perlocutionary act: effect of utterance
- insult, persuasion, learning, …


4. Evaluation

Interesting lecture, especially the point that the lecture has a clear structure and there was the possibility to practice.


5. References


http://wwwhomes.uni-bielefeld.de/~gibbon/Classes/Classes2007WS/ITL/index.html