How to make a dictionary - Lecture 9

Lecture Nine, 11th of December 2007

Types of lexical information - grammar


1. Introduction
2. Learner's Diary
3. Tasks and Quizzes
4. Evaluation
5. References


1. Introduction

The topic of the lecture was grammar, a wide field which covers orthography, phonology, morphology, syntax (sentence structure) and lexical idiosyncrasies and sometimes the sentence structure.


2. Learner's Diary

Syntax

The term syntax originally mean structure. Sometimes it is also restricted to mean sentence structure. Other meaning are word grammar, word syntax, text grammar, text syntax.


Sentence Structure

A structure is an arrangement of objects in a certain order in relation to each other. This applies to e.g. architecture, traffic systems, paintings, music, written and spoken language.

A structure consists of relations of two kinds

paradigmatic relations
- classificatory relations of similarity and difference between objects

syntagmatic relations
- compositional relations between parts of a larger whole


Syntagmatic relations in syllables
Syntagmatic relations in words
Syntagmatic relations in sentences

Pictures


Sentence Structure

Sentences consist of

Words which are grouped into larger phrases

Phrases which are grouped into
- even larger phrases
- and into sentences

Sentences which may also be grouped into more complex sentences:
- with subordinate clauses
- relative clauses
- adverbial clauses
- or with coordinate clauses
- and
- but
- for


Definition of a sentence

Simple sentence
A sentence is a simple sentence if it consists of only one clause
The Pepsi worker allegedly assaulted the Coca-Cola employee.

Coordinating sentence
A sentence is a sentence linked with a sentence by means of a coordinating conjunction, e.g. but, and
An assembly worker hid screws in a specially designed hiding place and took up to 7,000 home with him every day.

Subordinating sentence
A sentence is a sentence with a subordinate simple sentence (clause) inserted into it, e.g. relative clause, adverbial clause
A car dealership owner killed two employees because they kept asking for more pay.

Exclusion condition
Nothing else is a sentence.


Syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations

Picture


Syntactic categories (parts of speech)

Nominal categories
- Nouns
- Pronouns (special glue: co-reference)
- Articles
- Adjectives

Verbal categories
- Verbs
- Adverbs

Glue categories:
- Prepositions (intra-sentence glue)
- Conjunctions (inter-sentence glue)
- Interjections (dialogue glue)


Nominal categories - determiner

Articles
- definite: the
- indefinite: a

Possessives
- my, your, his, her, its, our, their

Demonstratives
- proximal: this
- distal: that

Quantifiers
- cardinal numerals: one, two, ...
- existential: some, several, few, many, ...
- dual: both
- universal: each, every, all, ...


Nominal categories - adjectives

Adjective types:

scalar:
- small ... big
- cold ... hot
- hairless ... hairy

polar:
- alive / dead
- married / unmarried

appraisive (scalar or polar?):
- good
- great
- wonderful

ordinal:
- first, second, ...

Special feature of scalar adjectives:

“adverbs” of degree
- very
- highly
- extremely
- incredibly


Nominal categories - nouns

Proper nouns

names
- personal
- place
- product

Common nouns

Countable nouns
- knife, fork, spoon

Mass nouns (uncountable nouns):
- bread (a slice of bread)
- butter (a piece of butter)
- jam (a spoonful of jam)


Nominal categories - pronouns

Personal pronouns
- I/me, you, he/him, she/her, we/us, they

Possessive pronouns
- mine, yours, his, hers, its, ours, theirs

Demonstrative pronouns
- proximal: this
- distal: that, yonder (archaic)

Quantifier pronouns
- cardinal numerals: one, two, ...
- existential: some, several, few, many, ...
- dual: both
- universal: each, every, all, ...

Relative pronouns
- more like conjunctions


Verbal categories - verbs

Main verbs

finite forms
- person (1st, 2nd, 3rd)
- number (singular, plural)
- tense (present, past)

non-finite forms
- infinitive
- participle:
present
perfect

Periphrastic verbs (auxiliary verb + non-finite main verb)
- modal: can, may, will, shall; ought, ...
- aspectual: be+prespart (continuous), have+pastpart (perfect)
- passive: be+pastpart


Property of verbs

Internal structure

simple:
- stem + inflection

periphrastic:
- auxiliary verb sequence + main verb (might have been being repaired)

External structure of verbs
- Intransitive
- Transitive
- Ditransitive
- Prepositional
- Phrasal
- Sentential


Verb categories - adverbs

Deictic
- here, there; now, then

Time
- soon

Place
- source
- path
- goal

Direction
- into, ...
- towards

Manner

Degree
- better dealt with in connection with adjectives


Glue categories - prepositions

- Basically - make nominal expressions into adverbial expressions
- Pretty much categories as adverbs
- Except the “all purpose preposition” of


Glue categories - conjunctions

Co-ordinating conjunctions
- and, but

Subordinating conjunctions
- conjunction-like relative pronouns
make sentences (clauses) into adjective-like noun modifiers

- basically
make sentence (clauses) into adverb-like verb modifiers


Glue categories - interjections

Interjections link parts of dialogues together:
- “Hi!”
- “er”
- “huh?”

They may also be expressions of subjective reactions:
- “Ouch!”
- “Wow!”



3. Tasks and Quizzes


What happens when you count “uncountable” nouns?

It is not possible to count uncountable nouns, they are mass nouns, they are intangible.


What is the meaning of “of”?

- possession
- amount
- space or time
- position
- characteristics
- date
- containing


Construct prepositional phrases corresponding to the types of adverbs

Deictic When I pass my class, we meet over there.
Time He is waiting since two hours.
Place We can't meet at the cafeteria.
Direction The next city is down the river.
Manner That is fantastic.


Find examples of conjunctions of each type

Coordinating conjunctions and, but, or, so, for
Subordinating conjunctions after, if, when, although, whether, because


Find examples of 5 different interjections

Dear expressing pity
Hm expressing hesitation, doubt
Oh expressing surprise, pain
Ugh means "distinguish!"
Gosh expression of surprise, amazement


Describe as many syntactic facts as possible about the example text - parts of speech, sentence types, syntagmatic relations, paradigmatic relations ...

A McDonald's employee was arrested, jailed and is facing criminal charges because a police officer got sick after a hamburger he ate was too salty. The employee accidentally spilled salt on some hamburger meat and told her supervisor and co-worker, who "tried to thump the salt off." The employee was charged because she
served the burger "without regards to the well-being of anyone who might consume it."

A indefinite article
McDonald's employee noun, subject
was arrested past participle, passive verb
jailed passive verb
and conjunction
is main verb
facing verb, continuous form
criminal adjective
charges noun
because subordinating conjunction
a indefinite article
police officer noun, subject
got main verb
sick adverb
after subordinating conjunction
a indefinite article
hamburger countable noun
he personal noun
ate main verb
was main verb, past tense
too adverb of degree
salty adverb of manner

the definite article
employee noun, subject
accidentally adverb of manner
spilled main verb, past tense
salt noun, accusative object
on preposition
some quantifier
hamburger meat noun
and coordinating conjunction
told main verb, past tense
her personal pronoun
supervisor noun, dative object
and conjunction
co-worker noun, dative object
who relative pronoun
tried main verb
to thump infinitive verb
the definite article
salt noun, accusative object
off preposition

the definite article
employee noun, subject
was charged passive, past participle verb
because subordinating conjunction
she personal pronoun, subject
served main verb, past tense
the definite article
burger noun, accusative object
without adjective
regards noun
to preposition
the definite article
well-being noun
of preposition
anyone pronoun
who pronoun
might modal auxiliary verb
consume main verb
it personal pronoun, accusative object


Types of sentences

A McDonald's employee was arrested, jailed and is facing criminal charges
- coordinating conjunction

because a police officer got sick after a hamburger he ate was too salty.
- subordination conjunction (because)
- relative clause follows (after)
The employee accidentally spilled salt on some hamburger meat and told her supervisor and co-worker
- coordinating conjunction connects the two main clauses

who "tried to thump the salt off."
- pronoun, explains the situation

The employee was charged because she served the burger "without regards to the well-being of anyone who might consume it."
- subordinating clause connects the main clause with the subordinate clause



4. Evaluation

An interesting lecture, but to much information, it was hard to follow Mr. Gibbon and the lecture.



5. References

http://wwwhomes.uni-bielefeld.de/~gibbon/Classes/Classes2007WS/ITL/